Gossip theory
一、理论基本介绍
1 定义
Gossip theory 属于顾客聚焦理论的一种（customer-focused theory (i.e., gossip theory)）（Martin et al. 2017）
Gossip, which is defined as the exchange of information with evaluative content about absent third parties (Foster，2004；Beersma和Kleef，2012)
Virtually all of us frequently find ourselves producing, hearing, or otherwise participating in evaluative comments about someone who is not present in the conversation. It is often valuable (and sometimes unavoidable) to be part of such communications. To function efficiently in a complex social environment, humans require information about those around them. But social interconnections are complex, and it is impossible to be present at many primary exchanges to absorb this kind of information directly. Thus, many people are eager
to pick it up through an intermediary, whether or not they have the luxury and patience to confirm it later either directly or indirectly. This phenomenon, of course, is called gossip. It is an important social behavior that nearly everyone experiences, contributes to, and presumably intuitively understands.（Foster ，2004）
2 本质及特征
distinguish gossiping from other ways of speaking—three social features: 对参与者的熟悉程度，对情境的一致定义，以及对主体的道德描述。 the familiarity of the participants, a congenial definition of the situation, and a moral characterization of the subject. To be able to gossip together, individuals must know one another. They need not be friends or intimates, but they must be familiar enough with one another to minimize intervening social distance. Where social distance is not minimized initially (for example, in the case of two individuals from different age groups with dissimilar social statuses or roles), the amassing of shared biographical information allows for its gradual minimization (Yerkovich, 1977).
3 作用
（1）可以归纳为一种社会影响工具，其存在双刃剑作用：一是关系伤害（relational ruin）（例如untrustworthy, relational demise），二是社会黏合（social glue）（例如perceived liking, trust and expertise）。最终的正负结果取决于交流者关系类型（relationship type）及八卦效价（gossip valence）的交互作用。（Monique et al. 2003）
（2）一种非正式的交流工具（Mills，2010）。
4 基本知识
Beersma和Kleef (2012)分析了人们八卦的社会动机、前因变量及结果。并开发了量表Motives to Gossip Questionnaire（negative influence, information gathering and validation, social enjoyment, and group protection）These four motives are (a) to influence others negatively; (b) to inform; (c) to enjoy; and (d) to maintain group norms.
八卦
Foster （2004）综述了该概念的定义、不同的功能（social（information、Entertainment、Friendship、Influence）, evolutionary（Evolutionary Utility、Dynamic Utility and Guilt）, and personal functions）数据搜集方法、研究方法（神经生物学及社会网络分析方法是未来研究的方向）
专业术语 gossiper (firm)，gossip target （customer）, gossip event, teller, hearer
5 国内使用现状
无论是网页或者知网都很少有此理论的权威翻译和相关运用，此理论目前主要运用在英文文献里。
二、理论适用情境
以前大多运用到人际交流，现金越来越多文献用来探讨个人信息泄露的问题。个人信息管理（包括个人信息泄露Martin et al. 2017、声誉信息Feinberg et al. 2012、口碑传播Angelis et al. 2013）、人际交流（包括人际关系Yerkovich, 1977；Monique et al. 2003；、文化学习Baumeister et al. 2004、组织管理Mills，2010）、
来源：Foster, Eric K. (2004), “Research on Gossip: Taxonomy, Methods, and Future Directions,” Review of General Psychology, 8 (2),78–99.
1.1 个人信息披露（信息领域）
文献例举：Martin, K. D., Borah, A., & Palmatier, R. W. (2017). Data privacy: effects on customer and firm performance. Journal of Marketing A Quarterly Publication of the American Marketing Association, 81(1), págs. 36-58.
研究问题：不同类型的数据泄露对顾客行为及企业绩效的影响及影响机制。
（1）负面效应
假设前提：个人（消费者/用户）对于流言的感知（心理）和反映（行为）是负面的(Baumeister, Zhang, and Vohs 2004)。
解释机制：涉及情绪和认知上的反映(Leary and Leder 2009)，具体包括强烈的被背叛和被侵犯的感觉heightened feelings of betrayal and violation (Richman and Leary 2009)以及信任的下降 deteriorating levels of trust (Turner et al. 2003)，归纳为情绪冲突（Emotional violation）和认知信任（Cognitive trust）
（2）正面效应
解释机制：透明和控制transparency and control。Transparency implies the target’s awareness of and details about which information is being shared. The gossip target knows the scope of potential harm and can develop strategies to counter negative effects. Control is the extent to which the target believes (s) he can manage the flow of informatio
n (Emler 1994).
启发：two forms of empowerment, control and transparency
1.2 声誉信息（积极作用）
文献例举：Feinberg, M., Willer, R., Stellar, J., & Keltner, D. (2012). The virtues of gossip: reputational information sharing as prosocial behavior. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 102(5), 1015.
研究问题：人们是如何以及为什么分享声誉信息的。（existence and dynamics of prosocial gossip亲社会八卦）
解释机制：the sharing of negative evaluative information about a target in a way that protects others from antisocial or exploitative behavior（反社会或剥削行为）
启示：reputational theories
1.3 口碑传播（正反机制）
文献例举：Angelis, M. D., Bonezzi, A., Peluso, A. M., Rucker, D. D., & Costabile, M. (2013). On braggarts and gossips: a self-enhancement account of word-of-mouth generation and transmission. Journal of Marketing Research, 49(4), 551-563.
研究问题：为什么顾客会参与积极和消极的口碑分享？
解释机制：自我强化a basic human motive to selfenhance leads consumers to generate positive WOM (i.e., share information about their own positive consumption experiences) but transmit negative WOM (i.e., pass on information they heard about others’ negative consumption experiences). The authors present evidence for self-enhancement motives playing out in opposite ways for WOM generation versus WOM transmission across four experiments.